New Solar Panels Generate Energy from Indirect Sunlight

Commonly used solar cells require direct sunlight in order to be able to produce electricity. If these solar cells do not get enough sunlight, their efficiency considerably drops. Recently engineers from GreenSun Energy, a company based in Tel Aviv, presented their latest invention - a solar cell able to produce power from diffused light. The new solar cell features a specialized colored panel, resembling a colored plexi-glass.
According to GreenSun Energy, their latest invention has its glass made with fluorescent dyes and nanoparticle metals. Besides being more efficient, the new solar cells could also have a lower cost compared to traditional solar cells. Another advantage of the new solar cells is that they require 80 percent less silicon than the traditional ones (less silicon means a lower cost of production). When sunlight (be it direct or indirect) touches the panels, it disperses across and the metal nanoparticles bring the sunlight to the edges where the silicon is placed.
The company's latest invention costs $2.10/W and is 12 percent more efficient than the traditional solar cell, which costs around $4.54/W. In addition, the conventional solar cells have efficiency loss because of the heat that doesn't turn into energy, informs CleanTechnica. In the new solar panels, the sunlight is diffused across the entire panel, thus nanoparticles are able to bring light to the edges of the panel where the light is transformed into energy. You can read more about various green technologies and eco-friendly developments here at www.InfoNIAC.com - please check the links at the bottom of the article. Currently the Tel Aviv-based company is working on making its latest invention even more efficient.
Engineers at GreenSun look forward towards increasing the efficiency of their new solar cell from 12 percent to 20 percent. They also hope to reduce the costs of producing the new panels to $0,94/W. link....

Europe Launches Biggest Offshore Wind Farm in the World

Today wind power represents the fastest developing source of green energy in Europe. Recently Denmark announced that this week it hopes to launch Horns Rev 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world.
The farm features 91 turbines that spread over a territory of 35 square kilometers and will be able to generate 209 megawatts of electricity, which is enough to power about 200,000 homes.
The Danish utility company Dong Energy estimates its project at $1 billion. Although the price is rather high, Horn Rev is expected to considerably cut the level of carbon emissions, making one step forward towards Europe's goal of producing 20 percent of green energy by 2020, reports Green Inc.
According to the European Wind Energy Association, in case the development of offshore wind projects continues, the offshore turbines could generate around 10 percent of Europe's power over the next 11 years. In addition, it is expected that offshore wind projects would provide 200,000 new work places by 2025. Today wind power represents the fastest developing source of green energy in Europe. Recently Denmark announced that this week it hopes to launch Horns Rev 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world.
The farm features 91 turbines that spread over a territory of 35 square kilometers and will be able to generate 209 megawatts of electricity, which is enough to power about 200,000 homes.
The Danish utility company Dong Energy estimates its project at $1 billion. Although the price is rather high, Horn Rev is expected to considerably cut the level of carbon emissions, making one step forward towards Europe's goal of producing 20 percent of green energy by 2020, reports Green Inc.
According to the European Wind Energy Association, in case the development of offshore wind projects continues, the offshore turbines could generate around 10 percent of Europe's power over the next 11 years. In addition, it is expected that offshore wind projects would provide 200,000 new work places by 2025. link....

Nationwide Hydrogen Fuel Network to Be Created in Germany by 2015

A lot of attention is paid today to green cars, especially the electric ones, but the popularity of hydrogen-powered vehicles is continuously increasing.
These cars will surely become popular after recent announcement from auto companies that billion dollars has been spent by now on fuel cell cars and Germany looks forward to come up with a hydrogen fueling network throughout the country by 2015.
There are 8 companies that plan to finish the construction of the network. These companies are: Daimler, EnBW, Linde, OMV, Shell, Total, Vattenfall and the NOW GmbH National Organisation Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology.
During the first step, planned for 2009-2011, the companies are going to lobby for public transport and start installing fuel stations, informs Gas2.0. Step number two will include the rollout of hydrogen-powered vehicles and the finish of the fuel network construction.
Countries that look forward to adopt the hydrogen fuel cell technology, besides Germany, also include Canada (which is currently working on the creation of a hydrogen highway that will connect Vancouver and Whistler by the 2010 Winter Olympic Games) and Denmark (which has plans to make a hydrogen network that will link Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Germany). link....

World's Biggest Solar Plant to Be Built in China

A company with headquarters in Arizona recently announced about its plans to build the largest solar plant on the planet. The 2,000 megawatt plant is expected to be constructed in Ordos, China in 2019. According to engineers the plant will generate electricity enough to power 3 million homes.
It is worth mentioning that thanks to this project, China, which is currently the second biggest energy-consuming country, could become one of the most important nations in terms of solar energy production. The plant represents a multi-billion dollar investment and will occupy an area of 25 square miles.
The first phase of the construction is expected to begin in 2010. If everything goes well, the world's biggest polluter could grow to become the biggest green energy consumer on the planet. link....

Amazing Green Shanghai Pavilion Built From Used CD Cases

The Shanghai World Expo 2010 has already engaged a large number of designers from various countries to work on daring projects. One of the most impressive constructions is the Shanghai Corporate Pavilion, designed by the architecture firm Atelier Feichang Jianzhu.
The most incredible thing about this building, besides the fact that it takes advantage of a great number of recycled materials, is that it is made from thousands of plastic tubes that were made from used CD cases.
The construction's exterior is made of hundreds of polycarbonate transparent recycled plastic tubes that are arranged in a grid-like matrix. At the end of its life cycle the construction can be easily recycled. Designers look forward to incorporate multi-colored LED lights into the outer walls of the building. All of these lights will be controlled by a computer, which will regularly change the appearance of the construction, reports ArchDaily.
The heat gathering tubes installed on the building's roof will be able to generate energy to power the pavilion and heat water. The entire solar thermal energy system will occupy an area of 1,600 square meters.
The electricity required for expositions as well as every day needs will be produced using ultra-low temperature power generation. The system that will produce a mist effect will add more mystery to the building. In addition, the produced mist will serve as a tool for lowering temperature and purifying the air. Water and mist will be produced from filtered rainwater. This is a truly amazing construction and might be a step towards a greener future. link....

South Korea to Feature Green Super City

Recently the government of South Korea announced about its intention to build a self-sufficient super-city. The project was designed by Foster + Partners, who worked in cooperation with PHA and Mobility in Chain. The city will serve as the territory where eco-friendly technologies will be developed. As soon as the Incheon eco-city is constructed, it will house 320,000 residents. It is expected that the city will become a place where sustainable industries will carry out their high-tech research and development programs, creating photovoltaic panels and wind turbines. Thus Incheon is expected to feature high-tech eco-friendly technologies, including biomass energy production, hydrogen fuel cells, as well as hydroponic roofs. The city will be finished in 10-15 years. More information on green technologies you can find here at www.InfoNIAC.com, please click the links at the bottom of the story.
At the moment the region is mostly agricultural and houses about 35,000 people. Green roofs will replace terrace farming, which would reduce the loss of agricultural space. All buildings in the city will not exceed 50 meters in height. According to Grant Brooker, a design director at Foster + Partners, the idea behind the whole project is to explore the sustainable possibilities of the island. More information is available here. link....

Environmental Issues: Ozone Depletion

What is ozone depletion? And how does ozone depletion affect the earth? Learn about the causes and effects of ozone depletion, and how it changes the environment for humans, animals, and plants.
Ozone Hole TourDetailed information about the hole in the ozone over Antarctica, provided by the Centre for Atmospheric Science at Cambridge University.
zSB(3,3)
Forecast Earth: Ozone Depletion VideosThese two short videos about the science and response to ozone depletion and the health effects of ultraviolet radiation were created through a partnership between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and The Weather Channel. The videos can be viewed over broadband or 56K modem connections. Text transcripts are also available.
Check the UV Level Where You LiveThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency provides an online UV index that is searchable by zip code. Check the UV level in your neighborhood to determine how much you and your neighbors are contributing to depletion of the ozone layer.
EPA: Ozone DepletionDetailed information about ozone depletion from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Global Efforts to Control Ozone DepletionInformation about worldwide collaboration to mitigate the effects of ozone depletion, from the United Nations Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat.
Ozone: The Good and Bad of OzoneFrom a human perspective, ozone is both helpful and harmful, both good and bad. In the upper atmosphere, ozone protects all life on Earth. At ground level, ozone is toxic and corrosive, a threat to human health, ecosystems, plants and marine life. link....

Part I: The History behind the Ozone Hole

The Beginning ...
Dramatic loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica was first noticed in the 1970s by a research group from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) who were monitoring the atmosphere above Antarctica from a research station much like the picture to the right.
The Halley Research Station - Information
BAS research stations in the Antarctic
Folklore has it that when the first measurements were taken in 1985, the drop in ozone levels in the stratosphere was so dramatic that at first the scientists thought their instruments were faulty. Replacement instruments were built and flown out, and it wasn't until they confirmed the earlier measurements, several months later, that the ozone depletion observed was accepted as genuine.
Another story goes that the TOMS satellite data didn't show the dramatic loss of ozone because the software processing the raw ozone data from the satellite was programmed to treat very low values of ozone as bad readings! Later analysis of the raw data when the results from the British Antarctic Survey team were published, confirmed their results and showed that the loss was rapid and large-scale; over most of the Antarctica continent.
What Is Ozone And How Is It Formed?
Ozone (O3 : 3 oxygen atoms) occurs naturally in the atmosphere.
The earth's atmosphere is composed of several layers. We live in the "Troposphere" where most of the weather occurs; such as rain, snow and clouds. Above the troposphere is the "Stratosphere"; an important region in which effects such as the Ozone Hole and Global Warming originate. Supersonic jet airliners such as Concorde fly in the lower stratosphere whereas subsonic commercial airliners are usually in the troposphere. The narrow region between these two parts of the atmosphere is called the "Tropopause".
Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere, thinnest in the tropics (around the equator) and denser towards the poles. The amount of ozone above a point on the earth's surface is measured in Dobson units (DU) - typically ~260 DU near the tropics and higher elsewhere, though there are large seasonal fluctuations. It is created when ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) strikes the stratosphere, dissociating (or "splitting") oxygen molecules (O2) to atomic oxygen (O). The atomic oxygen quickly combines with further oxygen molecules to form ozone:
O2 + hv->O + O(1)
O + O2->O3(2)

(1/v = wavelength < ~ 240 nm) It's ironic that at ground level, ozone is a health hazard - it is a major constituent of photochemical smog. However, in the stratosphere we could not survive without it. Up in the stratosphere it absorbs some of the potentially harmful ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun (at wavelengths between 240 and 320 nm) which can cause skin cancer and damage vegetation, among other things. Although the UV radiation splits the ozone molecule, ozone can reform through the following reactions resulting in no net loss of ozone: O3 + hv->O2 + O(3)
O + O2->O3(2)

as above
Ozone is also destroyed by the following reaction:
O + O3->O2 + O2(4)
The Chapman Reactions
The reactions above, labelled (1)-(4) are known as the "Chapman reactions". Reaction (2) becomes slower with increasing altitude while reaction (3) becomes faster. The concentration of ozone is a balance between these competing reactions. In the upper atmosphere, atomic oxygen dominates where UV levels are high. Moving down through the stratosphere, the air gets denser, UV absorption increases and ozone levels peak at roughly 20km. As we move closer to the ground, UV levels decrease and ozone levels decrease. The layer of ozone formed in the stratosphere by these reactions is sometimes called the 'Chapman layer'.
The Missing Reactions..
But there was a problem with the Chapman theory. In the 1960s it was realised that the loss of ozone given by reaction (4) was too slow. It could not remove enough ozone to give the values seen in the real atmosphere. There had to be other reactions, faster reactions that were controlling the ozone concentations in the stratosphere. We'll learn about these in Part III of this tour of the ozone hole.
What Is The Ozone Hole?
The Ozone Hole often gets confused in the popular press and by the general public with the problem of global warming. Whilst there is a connection because ozone contributes to the greenhouse effect, the Ozone Hole is a separate issue. However it is another stark reminder of the effect of man's activities on the environment. Over Antarctica (and recently over the Arctic), stratospheric ozone has been depleted over the last 15 years at certain times of the year. This is mainly due to the release of manmade chemicals containing chlorine such as CFC's (ChloroFluoroCarbons), but also compounds containing bromine, other related halogen compounds and also nitrogen oxides (NOx). CFC's are a common industrial product, used in refrigeration systems, air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in the production of some types of packaging. Nitrogen oxides are a by-product of combustion processes, eg aircraft emissions.
A more detailed description of the chemistry will follow in Part III.
The current levels of depletion have served to highlight a surprising degree of instability of the atmosphere, and the amount of ozone loss is still increasing. GreenPeace have documented many of the concerns that this raises.
What Is Being Done?
The first global agreement to restrict CFCs came with the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 ultimately aiming to reduce them by half by the year 2000. Two revisions of this agreement have been made in the light of advances in scientific understanding, the latest being in 1992. Agreement has been reached on the control of industrial production of many halocarbons until the year 2030. The main CFCs will not be produced by any of the signatories after the end of 1995, except for a limited amount for essential uses, such as for medical sprays.
The countries of the European Community have adopted even stricter measures than are required under the Montreal Protocol agreements. Recognising their responsibility to the global environment they have agreed to halt production of the main CFCs from the beginning of 1995. Tighter deadlines for use of the other ozone-depleting compounds are also being adopted.
It was anticipated that these limitations would lead to a recovery of the ozone layer within 50 years of 2000; the World Meteorological Organisation estimated 2045 (WMO reports #25, #37), but recent investigations suggest the problem is perhaps on a much larger scale than anticipated. link....

Part II: Recent Ozone Loss over Antarctica

Why the Antarctic?
There are now many measurements and observations of the changes in ozone that occur over Antarctica. Such measurements come from ground based instruments at the Antarctica research stations, from aircraft during scientific missions and from satellites.
Ozone loss was first detected in the stratosphere over the Antarctic (see Part I). Although mid-latitude and Arctic depletion has also been observed, the loss is most dramatic in the lower stratosphere over the Antarctica continent, where nearly all the ozone is destroyed over an area the size of Antarctica within a layer in the lower stratosphere that's many km thick.
Halley Bay, Antarctica
The graph to the right shows the measured total ozone above the Halley Bay station in Antarctica. Each point represents the average total ozone for the month of October. Note the sudden change in the curve after about 1975. By 1994, the total ozone in October was less than half its value during the 1970s, 20 years previous. This dramatic fall in ozone was caused by the use of man-made chemicals known as 'halocarbons' which include the well-known CFCs commonly used in fridges and so on. These CFCs had made their way into the upper atmosphere where the much stronger UV radiation from the Sun had broken them down into their component molecules, releasing the potentially damaging chlorine (and bromine) atoms, which, given the right conditions, could destroy ozone. We'll learn more about the chemistry behind the loss of ozone in Part III of this tour.
Regular ozone measurement have been made from the Halley Bay Research Station for many years. Ozone depletion is most marked in the Antarctic Spring, around October.
TOMS Satellite Measurements The TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) is a satellite-borne instrument used to gain a global picture of ozone levels. The following movie shows how the ozone levels over the Antarctic have been changing over the last 15 years. Measurements are taken daily, and the frames in the movie are constructed from monthly averages of the data. The data is freely available from several sites, including the British Atmospheric Data Centre.
Inline movie of TOMS ozone measurements from Nov 1978 to Jan 1992(3.7 Mb)
MPEG movie of TOMS ozone measurements from Nov 1978 to Jan 1992(1 Mb)
The TOMS instrument measures ozone levels from the back-scattered sunlight, specifically in the ultra-violet range. It measures wavelength bands centred at 312.5, 317.5, 331.3, 339.9, 360.0 and 380.0 nanometres. The first four wavelengths are absorbed to greater or lesser extents by ozone; the final two are used to assess the reflectivity. The ozone levels computed are 'column ozone' (i.e. Dobson Units or DU for short).
During the Antarctic winter (May - July), data is unavailable near the pole, which is in total darkness.
For more information, do visit the TOMS Home Page.
Monthly Averages for October
It is important to appreciate that the atmosphere behaves differently from year to year. Even though the same processes that lead to ozone depletion occur every year, the effect they have on the ozone is altered by the meteorology of the atmosphere above Antarctica. This is known as the 'variability' of the atmosphere. This variability leads to changes in the amount of ozone depleted and the dates when the depletion starts and finishes. To illustrate this, the monthly averages for October, from 1980 to 1991, are shown below.
You can obtain a larger image of a particular year by clicking on the appropriate globe. link....

Part IV. The Ozone Hole - Current Research Work

Where Does All The Ozone Go?
A major European campaign, the European Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Experiment (EASOE) was organised to study the polar regions during the winter of 1991/92. Much new information was gained, but many questions still remained:
What caused the mid-latitude loss?
How were the losses over the poles linked to those at mid-latitudes?
While CFCs and the bromine-containing compounds known to destroy ozone over the poles are strongly implicated in the mid-latitude loss, many uncertainties remain.
In 1994 and 1995 European scientists conducted SESAME, the Second European Stratospheric Arctic and Mid-latitude Experiment. They investigated the processes occurring at both high and mid-latitudes and how they are linked. At the same time a US-led expedition considered similar processes in the southern hemisphere.
Day 20 (11 September '94)The latest European campaign is called THESEO (THird European Stratospheric Experiment on Ozone) which takes places from 1997-1999. Scientists from many European countries, including some of this site, are collaborating on a wide range of experiments to determine the processes responsible for depleting ozone in the lower stratosphere but at mid-latitudes over the northern hemisphere.
The European Ozone Reserach Coordinating Unit have full details of the THESEO programme. Visit their website to find out more about the missions planned, press releases and the latest report of the UK Stratospheric Ozone
Day 40 (1 October '94)Review Group.
Chemical Modelling
Most of the research work here at the Centre for Atmospheric Science involves various computer models of the atmosphere. These models 'blow' (or advect) chemical species around the globe using known or computed weather patterns - winds, temperatures and pressures. The rates of various chemical reactions are dependent on temperature, pressure, and, in the case of photolytic processes, the position of the sun. At each step of the model, the computer code attempts to predict what chemical changes will occur by solving the equations representing each reaction.
Day 56 (17 October '94)The schematic figure below gives some idea of the different parts of such computer models and the sequence of events are the model executes on the computer. Such models can be, and often are, very complex with many man-years work behind them.
Anatomy of Chemical Model
Different classes of model are used. These are:
Box Models consider just a single point in the atmosphere. Such models are comparatively cheap to develop and run on a PC or workstation. The advantage of such models is that very complex chemical reactions can be included since only the chemistry at a single point is simulated. This is very useful for comparing model simulations with measurements in idealised cases and also for developing less complex chemistry schemes which are used in multi-dimensional models.
Trajectory Models are the next step up from box models. Essentially a trajectory model is a 'box model that moves'. A trajectory of a point (or points) of air is calculated from known wind fields. The chemistry is then calculated for all points along the path that the parcel or air took. This type of model is very useful for determining the chemical properties of air reaching observation stations. By running very many chemical trajectory models, it is also possible to begin to develop a three-dimensional picture of the chemistry in the atmosphere.
Three-dimensional Models use the traditional technique of simulating the atmospheric system on a grid of latitude/longitude points and vertical levels (surfaces of constant Potential Temperature or Pressure). Such models have a realistic representation of the movement or meteorology of air as well as other processes such as clouds, solar radiation and so on. In a way, you can think of a 3D model as a grid of box models where the air it being moved through the boxes. As many points are being represented it becomes impossible to use the complex chemistry schemes found in box models as this would place too great a demand on computing power. As it is, these 3D chemical models of the atmosphere require the most powerful High Performance Computers around. In the UK we use the Cray supercomputer and Fujisu supercomputers at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxford. Models and Observations Comparison of model results with observations both helps confirm our understanding of the processes responsible for ozone depletion, and can highlight those processes that require further study. A model of chemistry and transport has been used extensively in recent observational campaigns in the Arctic and Antarctic.The following graphics compare the output of the TOMCAT (grid-point) model with TOMS satellite data for the beginning of the Antartic spring - the ASHOE Campaign. TOMCAT was run on a resolution of approximately 5 deg x 5 deg. Further studies have used far higher resolutions.The TOMS instrument relies on backscattered sunlight for its measurements; hence for the Antarctic winter, data tends to be sparse and incomplete. This data came from the Meteor 3 Satellite. More information on TOMS is available here. Comparison between Model Results and Actual Satellite Data
Inline movie of comparison between TOMS satellite data and TOMCAT model run(1.7 Mb)
MPEG movie of comparison between TOMS satellite data and TOMCAT model run(366 Kb)
The model column ozone is very similar to that observed by satellite. Over the Antarctic continent there are low amounts of ozone, where there has been chemical destruction. Around the edge of the vortex, between 30S and 60S, there are higher amounts of ozone. These high amounts result from the transport of ozone from the region of production in the tropics. link....

Monster Jellyfish to Take Over World's Oceans

With overfishing, people gave way for a new species of giant jellyfish (like the one seen in the picture) to invade the world's seas. Such giant ocean creatures might soon take over the planet's oceans, researchers say.

In the picture you see here, a diver attempts to attach a sensor in order to track the giant Echizen jellyfish. The monster jellyfish has a body of 5 feet across and was spotted off the coast of northern Japan. Usually jellyfish are controlled by fish that consume them, but with an increased overfishing it is hard to keep jellyfish in check, which is why their number is continuously increasing.
Such monster jellyfish as the one in the picture are able to burst through fishing nets. They also represent threat for local fisheries, having big taste for fish eggs and larvae. The discovery was described by Anthony Richardson of CSIRO Marine & Atmospheric Research and his team in the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution.
Researchers say that the population of jellyfish is expected to grow as a result of another factor - climate change. They believe that soon water conditions could lead to a "jellyfish stable state", which, according to the scientists, is a state when jellyfish rule the oceans. Overfishing together with high levels of nutrients in the water, including nitrogen and phosphorous, can cause a dramatic increase in the number of jellyfish and red phytoplankton, which generates low-oxygen dead zones that are perfect for jellyfish, but deadly for fish, reports Discovery News.
"(There is) a jellyfish called Nomura, which is the biggest jellyfish in the world. It can weigh 200 kilograms (440 pounds), as big as a sumo wrestler and is 2 meters in diameter," said Richardson, who added that jellyfish is currently blooming in Southeast Asia, the Black Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea. link....

Psychological Factors Help Explain Slow Reaction To Global Warming

While most Americans think climate change is an important issue, they don't see it as an immediate threat, so getting people to "go green" requires policymakers, scientists and marketers to look at psychological barriers to change and what leads people to action, according to a task force of the American Psychological Association.

Scientific evidence shows the main influences of climate change are behavioral – population growth and energy consumption. "What is unique about current global climate change is the role of human behavior," said task force chair Janet Swim, PhD, of Pennsylvania State University. "We must look at the reasons people are not acting in order to understand how to get people to act."
APA's Task Force on the Interface Between Psychology and Global Climate Change examined decades of psychological research and practice that have been specifically applied and tested in the arena of climate change, such as environmental and conservation psychology and research on natural and technological disasters. The task force presented its findings at APA's 117th Annual Convention in Toronto in a report that was accepted by the association's governing Council of Representatives.
The task force's report offers a detailed look at the connection between psychology and global climate change and makes policy recommendations for psychological science.
It cites a national Pew Research Center poll in which 75 percent to 80 percent of respondents said that climate change is an important issue. But respondents ranked it last in a list of 20 compelling issues, such as the economy or terrorism. Despite warnings from scientists and environmental experts that limiting the effects of climate change means humans need to make some severe changes now, people don't feel a sense of urgency. The task force said numerous psychological barriers are to blame, including:
Uncertainty – Research has shown that uncertainty over climate change reduces the frequency of "green" behavior.
Mistrust – Evidence shows that most people don't believe the risk messages of scientists or government officials.
Denial – A substantial minority of people believe climate change is not occurring or that human activity has little or nothing to do with it, according to various polls.
Undervaluing Risks – A study of more than 3,000 people in 18 countries showed that many people believe environmental conditions will worsen in 25 years. While this may be true, this thinking could lead people to believe that changes can be made later.
Lack of Control – People believe their actions would be too small to make a difference and choose to do nothing.
Habit – Ingrained behaviors are extremely resistant to permanent change while others change slowly. Habit is the most important obstacle to pro-environment behavior, according to the report.
The task force highlighted some ways that psychology is already working to limit these barriers. For example, people are more likely to use energy-efficient appliances if they are provided with immediate energy-use feedback. Devices that show people how much energy and money they're conserving can yield energy savings of 5 percent to 12 percent, according to research. "Behavioral feedback links the cost of energy use more closely to behavior by showing the costs immediately or daily rather than in an electric bill that comes a month later," said Swim.
Also, some studies have looked at whether financial incentives can spur people to weatherize their houses. The research has shown that combined strong financial incentives, attention to customer convenience and quality assurance and strong social marketing led to weatherization of 20 percent or more of eligible homes in a community in the first year of a program. The results were far more powerful than achieved by another program that offered just financial incentives.
The task force identified other areas where psychology can help limit the effects of climate change, such as developing environmental regulations, economic incentives, better energy-efficient technology and communication methods.
"Many of the shortcomings of policies based on only a single intervention type, such as technology, economic incentives or regulation, may be overcome if policy implementers make better use of psychological knowledge," the task force wrote in the report.
The task force also urged psychologists to continue to expand that knowledge. Environmental psychology emerged as a sub-discipline in the early 20th century but didn't really gain momentum until the 1980s, according to the report. But the task force said studying and influencing climate change should not be left to a sub-discipline; many different types of psychologists can provide an understanding of how people of different ages respond to climate change. "The expertise found in a variety of fields of psychology can help find solutions to many climate change problems right now," Swim said. "For example, experts in community and business psychology can address the behavioral changes necessary as businesses and nonprofits adapt to a changing environment." link....

When It Comes To Going Green, People Want Smaller Gains Now, Not Bigger Gains Later

People make environmental choices the same way they manage money, preferring smaller gains right away to bigger gains later, according to new research published by the American Psychological Association.

This behavior reflects "delay discounting," a mental filter used to make decisions about current versus future gains and losses, David Hardisty, M.Phil., and Elke Weber, Ph.D., of Columbia University, report in the August Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Just how much people downplay what would happen in the future is called the discount rate.
No matter what the context, discounting stems from three factors: a bias for the present; uncertainty; and projected free time, money or other resources (such as new "green" technologies), said the authors. "When we might gain, it's simple: Those three factors make us want that gain right away. When we might lose, there's a conflict," Hardisty said. "We want to get the loss behind us, yet we also want to put it off -- because we think it will be easier to pay later or the problem will somehow go away."
Hardisty and Weber found that the resulting, seemingly counterproductive tendency to accept smaller gains now over bigger gains later applies not only to finance, but also to environmental planning.
The researchers conducted three studies with 65, 118 and 146 participants, respectively. They presented participants with a series of situations, forcing them to choose between different outcomes involving air quality, mass transit, garbage pile-up from a workers' strike, and monetary gain and loss (for example, paying a parking ticket in a smaller amount now or a larger amount later).
As examples of the various scenarios presented, participants picked:

• 21 days of clean air now over 35 days of clean air next year;
• a short-term fix for mass transit now, instead of a long-term fix later;
• a $250 lottery win now over a $410 win a year later.

Previous studies found that people are not particularly rational about personal finance. For example, if they came into some cash while carrying two loans, they might completely pay off the smaller loan right away, even though they could instead start paying off the larger, higher-interest loan – a strategy that would reduce their overall interest.In the new studies, across scenarios, participants downplayed future gains significantly more than future losses. Employing a formula used by economists, "with our particular scenarios and measurement techniques, [we] found annualized discount rates that averaged out to roughly 34 percent for monetary and environmental gains and 9 percent for losses," Hardisty said.The findings make it possible to apply the large body of research on delay discounting of financial outcomes to environmental outcomes, which the authors said is "good news for researchers and policymakers alike."
This could mean framing environmental decisions as ways to avoid future loss rather than realize future gains, said Hardisty. For example, homeowners could be told that better insulation will help them avoid losing money to high utility bills, not that it will help them save -- a subtle but influential semantic change. Similarly, campaigns to encourage people to buy higher-cost fluorescent light bulbs could highlight how their use will reduce future energy costs – more loss avoidance.Finally, the discount rates in this study were dramatically higher than would be predicted by economic theory. For solid evidence -based policy, lawmakers and planners should consider how real people actually make choices, Weber said. link....

Ways To Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Transport

Security of supply and climate change are high on the global energy agenda. And the transport sector is no exception as virtually every means of transport by land, air and sea uses fossil fuels and thus emits CO2. Energy consumption for transport purposes represents 20% of the world’s total energy consumption.The most important thing is to introduce renewable energy in the transport sector and have the sector integrated in the energy system. By land, air and sea there are plenty of opportunities to reduce CO2 emissions.
By land
Private cars: The numbers of cars in the world are growing rapidly. In the short term it is possible to make the cars far more fuel efficient. In the longer term electric cars charged by wind turbines, for instance, seem to be a fine solution for the global energy system. In the long term, cars powered by fuel cells and hydrogen can supplement electric cars. Road charges can also help reduce CO2 emissions, regulate traffic and reduce local pollution. There should be emphasis on more kinds of alternative fuels, so that vital transport activities are not affected by supply failures.
Vans and trucks

So far diesel engines have been the most efficient way of freight transportation on highways. A good alternative could be gas. Today's battery technology is not suited for electrically powered trucks. However, the distribution of goods in cities can be done with small electric vans. Drivers can be trained in driving energy efficiently. Taxes and duties can provide better and smarter transport solutions with lower energy consumption.
By sea
International shipping: Accounts for 90% of the global transport of goods. In order to reduce CO2 emissions, shipping could be adjusted to a slower traffic, as well as a better planning of routes and logistics. This could save 10-15% of CO2 emissions. The ships can furthermore be constructed with better propellers, hulls with less water resistance and new types of smooth bottom paint be used. Wind and solar power can also be used together with better engine technology. This could save 10-15% of CO2 emissions. Thirdly, there can be legislation for achieving less CO2 emissions. This as well could save 10-15% of CO2 emissions from sea transport. To not distort competition, the legislation must be agreed on internationally.
By air
Passenger air transport: Passenger planes can become much more fuel efficient. Construction materials can be lighter. The air drag from planes can be reduced. Hydraulics can be replaced with electric engines. Solar energy can be used in a far better way. Efficient and climate-friendly fuel cells can produce electricity to all the electrical installations in the aircraft. Flight speed can be reduced, that is if the passengers are willing to accept longer flight times. As to routes under 800 kilometres, planes can be replaced with high-speed trains. Fossil fuels for aircraft engines can be replaced with biofuels.
The control of air traffic can be optimized so that planes avoid waiting at airports before departure or in the air before landing. The entire airspace can be used better, so that the planes do not have to criss-cross around the forbidden zones. Finally, you can legislate to reduce CO2 emissions from aviation, but it must happen in global agreement in order not to distort competition. link....

Improved Air Quality During Beijing Olympics Could Inform Pollution-curbing Policies

A view of northwest Beijing on a smoggy day (top) and on a clear day (bottom). (Credit: Image courtesy of Cornell University)

The air in Beijing during the 2008 Olympics was cleaner than the previous year's, due to aggressive efforts by the Chinese government to curtail traffic, increase emissions standards and halt construction in preparation for the games, according to a Cornell study.Led by Max Zhang, assistant professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering, the study indicates that such measures as regulating traffic density and encouraging public transportation can have a significant impact on local air quality.
"We hope our study can help or advise local regulators and policymakers to adopt long-term sustainable emission controls to improve air quality," Zhang said. "That's our mission."
Published online July 11 in the journal Atmospheric Environment, the study was based on air quality readings before, during and after the Olympics. Leading up to the Olympics, the Chinese government barred more than 300,000 heavy-emission vehicles -- mostly trucks -- from the roads. The city also implemented rules in which only some people were allowed to drive on certain days based on their license plate numbers. As a result, close to 2 million vehicles were pulled from the roads. Other mandates involved halting construction and decreasing the use of coal in favor of natural gas for electricity.
In 2007 and 2008, the researchers collected air quality data from equipment installed at two elevations on a building in the heart of Beijing. They also tracked emissions from vehicles in different areas of the city by following randomly selected cars and trucks in a minivan equipped with sensitive instruments for detecting carbon particles, including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and black carbon, or soot.
Among the researchers' conclusions: Black carbon pollution is significantly greater at ground level than at higher elevations, and diesel trucks are a major source of black carbon emission during the summer in Beijing. These particles are not only harmful to the lungs, but are also known to be a global warming compound, Zhang said.The researchers found that car emissions of black carbon were down 33 percent in 2008 compared with their 2007 readings. Carbon dioxide decreased 47 percent, and ultrafine carbon-based particles -- those that measure less than 100 nanometers -- decreased 78 percent. The sharp drops were most likely due to a new emission standard implemented in Beijing in 2008, in which all new registered vehicles as well as gasoline and diesel fuel engines were required to achieve emissions standards equivalent to European Union regulations. A similar standard was mandated starting in June 2008 for 20,000 buses and 66,000 taxies. The improved fuel quality probably enhanced the performance of engines and catalytic converters, the researchers reported.
"We are showing what the city can do if they are determined to improve air quality," Zhang said.
The study, whose first author was graduate student Xing Wang, was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Cornell's Jeffrey Sean Lehman Fund for Scholarly Exchange with China. link....

Too Many Trees Planted In Central Strip Of Roads Can Be Worse Than None; Can Trap Vehicle Exhaust Fumes

A new study published in the International Journal of Environment and Waste Management suggests that we can improve city environments by planting trees down the middle of streets provided they are not too close together.

Christof Gromke now of the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF in Davos, Switzerland, and Bodo Ruck of the Institute for Hydromechanics at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany, have investigated the effects of trees on ventilation and pollution levels along city streets lined with densely packed tall buildings, so called urban canyons.The team's wind tunnel study investigated how air flows along canyon-like city streets and how this is affected by the street having a central line of trees. They looked at how air flows along and upward from the urban canyons and the effect of different spacing for trees and how stationary or moving traffic affects air flow.Their results suggest that streets with too many trees planted close together along a central strip, as is common in many major European cities could lead to more vehicle exhaust fumes being trapped in the urban canyon than would occur if there were no trees. Specifically, the leafy canopies of a high density tree line hinder the upward flow of pollutants. They also damp down the swirling eddies of air that would otherwise help exhaust gases escape the street.The study does not advocate removing trees from city streets, of course. Further investigation revealed that a wider spacing of trees, with trees separated by at least the width of their crowns enables pollution-carrying eddies to form and allows the air at street level to clear much more quickly especially when traffic is not at a standstill.The research could help town planners improve city environments by choosing the optimum spacing of trees when planting new streets or to pollard more appropriately to improve airflow in streets with established tree lines. link....

Environmental Pollution: The Effects Are Endless

Environmental pollution is not just a single entity but is comprised of a variety of matters. To break it down for definition purposes, one could look at the meaning of each word to get a good idea of what we are dealing with. The word environment means the physical and biological factors and their chemical interactions that affect an organism, while natural environment means all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth. Pollution is any form of organism (natural or not) that affects the natural order of things.

What Does This All Mean?

With some basic definitions of environment and pollution, one could wonder how does it affect their own world. Well, environmental pollution invades many aspects of everyone’s life. A few examples of this all encompassing pollution would include:

• Air pollution – Acid rain, illegal burning, cigarette smoke, and excessive fumes from automobile chemicals are a few causes of this.

• Water pollution – Illegal dumping of rubbish, toxic waste, general chemicals used for cleaning, and more reeks havoc on our waterways

• Land pollution – Strip mining, excessive building, misuse of fertilizers, and full landfills are taking away our land’s precious minerals.

• Noise pollution – Busy streets, loud music, heavy construction areas, and over populated work areas cause increased stress levels in our everyday life.

Controlling The Monster

This is some pretty scary knowledge and it can overwhelm just about anyone. Some may think that we have gone so far that we may never see the end of the environmental nightmare. We cannot give up hope nor can we just expect the next person to take care of it all. There are things that have been instilled and as governments come to realize that this is not going away on its own they are cracking down on some of the major contributors of the problem. However, the everyday person can help and it does not matter how old you are, your economic status, or where you live. We all can do something to improve this bleak situation. A few things that can help would include:

• Clean your air – Make sure your heating source is burning efficiently by having it inspected. Cut down or cut out the use of chemicals in your household. There are many alternatives that are just as effective for cleaning.

• Water conservation – Water is one of our most vital resources and one of the resources that get wasted at alarming rates. Using appliances that require little amounts of water, turning off the water while brushing your teeth, and using cleaning products that do not have phosphates helps reduce water pollution.

• Soil saving – Instead of throwing your kitchen waste into the rubbish consider a compost bin. There are a variety of ways to compost kitchen wastes into mineral rich soil enhancers. These enhancers can be put back into the mineral starved soil.Environmental pollution is not just one generation’s issue. Historically, there has been a general downfall in our Earth’s most valuable resources and we are all to blame. But, the future does not have to look bleak because we can all be a part of the solution. We just need to take a step back, make small changes and the results will be great. link....

Ecosystem

The Grassland Ecosystem

The grassland ecosystem covers the flora, fauna and ground conditions with in the parameters of a grassland. From the climatic conditions to the members and relationships in the food chain, the grassland ecosystem is dependant on the major resources available. In the grassland ecosystem the proportion of flora, including the varieties of trees, grasses, fungi and flowers will effect the way in which fauna exist.The fauna in a grassland ecosystem will include the minute and the massive. The grassland ecosystem offers shelter and living conditions to insects, birds, arachnids and mammals, from the tiny bush mouse to the largest mammal, lizard or predator.In the grassland ecosystem the smallest creatures and plants are still important to the structure of the environment. From the smallest gnat to the largest predator, the relationship between the food chain is vital to the balance of the ecosystem. In the way that grass feeds cattle so too do smaller creatures become food for larger. Even the plants of the grassland will become fodder for larger herbivores or small creatures. The grassland ecosystem is balanced by the resources available. The number of trees, fungi, grass or flowers will be, maintained by the number of animals or insects using them for their lifestyle or food sources. If the number of predators in the grassland ecosystem should alter, then the food chain would be unbalanced right down to the fundamental level. Even a slight alteration in the grassland ecosystem, due to floods or drought or human intervention, can lead to the destruction of the grassland ecosystem itself.The grassland ecosystem is reliant on the balance being maintained, between growth and decay. While rotting grass, carcasses and mulch can offer sustenance to some creatures, the death of a plant is still part of the grassland ecosystem. The mulch provides the ideal place for germination of other seeds. All this is part of the balance of the grassland ecosystem. The grassland ecosystem includes the life cycle of the larger animals too. Their living, reproducing, hunting and dying all effect the way the grassland ecosystem achieves balance. Any variation to the numbers of creatures within the grassland ecosystem could change the fragile balance drastically. To few predators could mean an over production of smaller herbivores. This would lead to a loss of plant life within the grassland ecosystem. Once the balance is lost, it can be impossible to regain.The delicate balance of the grassland ecosystem is vital to the health and vitality of the grassland itself. From climate conditions, water quality and quantity, to human intervention, or exploitation, the grassland ecosystem is prone to influences that can alter it forever. link....

Emissions

The Benefits Behind Emissions Reduction Incentive Grants

There are several different state governments as well as private sector foundations and organizations that are offering emissions reduction incentive grants to various categories of equipment. By far the largest programs in the United States are offered by the state governments with Texas and California having the largest emissions reduction incentive grants programs within their Environmental Protection agencies or divisions. Each one of the emissions reduction incentive grants is based on an application process, most which can be done online. These grants are open to companies, government agencies, private owners and operators or even those businesses that own vehicles or engines that meet the criteria for the grant. Typically states will determine which counties or areas within the state are eligible for the grant as well as the level of funding of the various grants offered. In Texas, for example, the grants are usually only offered in the counties around the major metropolitan cities, however in California emissions reduction incentive grants may be localized or based state wide. There are several different types of emissions reduction incentive grants, some which are provided to communities and cities to create environmentally friendly options for commuters and travelers. Often these grants include programs to purchase hybrid or alternative fuel vehicles to use within government agencies, however they can also extend to programs for low-sulfur producing bio-diesel fuels or even mass transit development programs and systems. In some areas the emissions reduction incentive grants may be applied directly to lowering the number and amount of traffic on the road. This could include using funds to set up car pool programs, assist employers in developing work from home options for employees or even increasing the number of fuel efficient buses being used on public transportation routes. In these cases each city, county or municipality will apply for the emissions reduction incentive grants either through their state government or through federal programs. Not all of the grants are for vehicles on the road, with both Texas and California offering emissions reduction incentive grants for engines on compressors, heavy equipment, generators and even construction equipment such as forklifts and backhoes. Since these large types of motorized equipment typically operate using diesel fuel, switching to minimum idling time, fully upgrading and maintaining the equipment as well as replacing old, poorly functioning motors with newer, low emissions motors only makes sense. Through the emissions reduction incentive grants owners and operators can either fix or replace old equipment and full funding of the repair may be completely covered by the grant, ensuring that both sides benefit through the application of the incentive grants. link....

Emissions Control

What Is An Evaporative Emissions Control System

The evaporative emissions control system for an automobile is attached to the fuel tank. Usually hidden inside one of the rear wheel wells or in a cavity of the body design near the fuel tank the evaporative emissions control system plays an important role in emissions control.Over time, as fuel sits in the fuel tank of your car the process of evaporation loses combustible gas vapors from the liquid fuel. Without a proper system to trap and store these gas vapors, they are emitted into the atmosphere where they are considered a dangerous pollutant. The evaporative emissions control system is the system that traps and stores these combustible gas vapors to be reintroduced through the intake system later.The evaporative emissions control system consists of six basic parts. The six basic parts that I am referring to are intake system, fuel tank, vapor canister, vapor restriction, purge control valve and the pressure/vacuum relief filler cap.Here is a simple overview of the evaporative emissions control system of your car: As the liquid fuel in the fuel tank evaporates, it is restricted to the fuel tank until the fuel tank has reached a predetermined internal pressure. When the predetermined internal pressure is reached or exceeded the vapor restriction will then allow the combustible gas vapor to pass through a line attached from the fuel tank to the vapor canister. There are three types of purge control systems, throttle body position, vacuum valve modulated flow or ECM (Electronic Control Module) activated solenoid valve. Depending on which one of these three types of purge control systems your vehicle is equipped with, when the engine has reached or exceeded idle speed the vapor canisters purge control valve will open up from applied vacuum pressure. This will allow all or some of the combustible vapors to be released from the vapor canister into the intake system. When either your engine has used up the fuel in the fuel tank or it has evaporated away, you will need to open the pressure/vacuum relief filler cap and replenish the fuel in the fuel tank at a nearby gas station.As the fuel is burned, there are four other standard emissions control systems on U.S. built cars. The other four standard emissions control systems are the catalytic converter, the PCV valve, the EGR valve and the air injection system. If you are not sure if your evaporative emissions control system of your car is functioning properly or within manufacturer recommended specifications you must have the evaporative emissions control system diagnosed as soon as possible. link....